Caribbean Trade Law and Development

Category: Caribbean

  • Written History: The Classic Tale of the CCJ and Caribbean Jurisprudence

    javierspencer

    Javier Spencer

    The 19th meeting of the Conference of Heads of Government of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) agreed that a Caribbean court of appeal should be established to replace the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) – commonly known as The Privy Council- as the final appellate court for the Region. The overall goal of this decision was to increase access to justice that is applicable and unique to the socio-cultural environment of the People of the Region. In many instances, judgements passed down from the Privy Council have not been contextualized in the Caribbean reality. To this end, there has been an evident need for a court of appeal that considers the intricacies of the Region’s culture and reality. This article will briefly retell the tale of how the Court has improved the Region’s jurisprudence on decided cases in its appellate jurisdiction.

    Purpose and Structure

    The Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ) has been described, by many, as a unique experiment with two courts in one. But its existence is one that is critical for bringing about independence, integration, and development for an indigenous jurisprudence in the region. Having regard to the aim of strengthening the Region’s economic integration, the Court’s remit is to hear and determine cases in its original and appellate jurisdictions. In its Original Jurisdiction, the CCJ interprets and applies the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas (RTC) with compulsory and exclusive jurisdiction. On the other hand, its Appellate Jurisdiction hears appeals as the court of last resort in both civil and criminal matters. Since its inception in 2005, the Court has heard and determined complex cases which have contributed to the shaping and moulding of a Caribbean jurisprudence.

    The Cases and Legal Principles

    The Law of Human Rights

    In 2006, the CCJ had the privilege of shaping the Region’s understanding of the law of human rights and further shaped its jurisprudence in this respect. For example, the exercise of the prerogative of mercy was brought to the fore in the case of Attorney General v. Joseph, [2006] CCJ 1 (AJ). The prerogative of Mercy was introduced in the Region when the Privy Council ruled against an execution delay in excess of 5 years. In such cases, all death sentences under this rule should be commuted to only life imprisonment. The Court’s judgement in the Joseph and Boyce refuted this principle upheld by the Privy Council, especially where the death sentence was mandatory in Barbados.

    The prominent concern was whether the state (Barbados) should await the decision from the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. The Court had to closely analyse precedent set out by the Privy Council and having regard to due process, the condemned has right to await the decision of the International Tribunal. However, the discrepancy existed where International Law differed from Constitutional Law of Barbados, and the onus was on the Court to strike a balance between the rights stipulated by the international body to that of the national law of Barbados. In its deliberation, the Court opined that it was unacceptable for the state to wait indefinitely for the completion of a foreign process over which it had no control. The undue delay in this process did not consider an extension of the 5 year time limit or by excluding it in computing that period. At this turning point, the Court had to duly interpret and apply the doctrine of legitimate expectation. However, if the decision-making of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights was in excess of 18 months, within a 5 year period, the state should not be required to wait beyond a reasonable time.

    Standard of Proof & Admissibility of Evidence

    Standard of Proof became another jurisprudential subject in effectively shaping the legal system in the Region. The admissibility of evidence was challenged on the basis that sample evidence could not be proven since it came from the accused. In this regard, the Court’s interpretation of the Evidence Act Statute of Barbados determined that there had to be stricter standard of proof relevant to the proceedings. By way of the Evidence Act, oral admission by the accused lacked authenticity and reliability as illuminated in the case of Grazette v The Queen, [2009] CCJ 2 (AJ). In its interpretation of the Evidence Act Statute of Barbados, the Court had to jostle with the effective application of the Act since it was modelled from the Australian Law Commission.

    Land Law

    Jurisprudence throughout the Caribbean continues to have international influence as evidenced in Guyana’s land law. The legislation comprised of a hybrid between Roman-Dutch Law and the English Common Law; and to this end, peculiar interpretation was needed in respect of adverse possession (change of ownership). Espoused in Toolsie Persaud Ltd. v. James Investments, [2008] CCJ 5 (AJ), the Court had to determine whether there could have been a change in ownership when the title documents were declared invalid. Additionally, determining specific performance involving the sale of land in Guyana was captured in Ramkishun ad item Sukhree v. Fung-Kee-Fung, [2010] CCJ 2 (AJ) where the owner agreed to sell the land to the purchaser and died before conveyance. The owner’s administrator transferred it to the owner’s heir instead of the purchaser. Under the principles of English Common Law, the transaction would have been granted but the purchaser would have acquired an equitable interest. Differently, using the principles of Roman-Dutch Law, the system on equitable interest would have granted the transaction. The Court’s amalgamation of the two legal systems had formulated the Law of Immovable in Guyana, refusing specific performance. In this instance, the CCJ has demonstrated its capacity to devise appropriate and effective solutions regarding the land law principle in Guyana (Byron, 2011).

    Right to a Fair Trial

    The Court continued along its trajectory to contribute to the development of the Region’s jurisprudence by establishing the meaning of fairness concerning the constitutional right to a fair trial as exhibited in Gibson v. Attorney General, [2010] CCJ 3 (AJ). After Gibson pleaded not guilty to charge brought against him, he sought after expert evidence which was costly. In this regard, the Court was faced with the decision as to whether Gibson should have access to expert facilities funded by the state. The inequality of arms was so serious that denying access to expert advice could adversely affect the fairness of the trail. Therefore, Gibson was granted access to expert facilities. This case solidified and set precedent in respect of legal rights in the Region.

    Accountability and Good Governance

    Can a State bring an action in tort for misfeasance in public office? Florencio Marin v. Attorney General of Belize, [2011] CCJ 9 (AJ) highlighted that two former ministers were alleged to have transferred land to a company owned by one of them for something of sufficient value in return (consideration). Remedies include dismissal from office, disciplinary actions, prosecution, and the imposition of legislation for a breach of trust and integrity.

    Access to Justice

    Along with the development of a sui generis jurisprudence for the Region, one of the main tenets of the Court is to significantly improve access to justice in order to promote social stability and economic development. For instance, appeals at the Court have been heard in forma pauperis so as to facilitate the Court’s use by ordinary citizens of Member States. Ross v. Sinclair, [2009] CCJ 11 (AJ) allowed two very underprivileged ladies from Guyana to bring civil appeals to be determined by the Court. In support of the main aim of ordinary citizens to derive the benefits from the Court, Bar Associations in the Region have had Attorneys provide pro bono services so that important matters could be ventilated for persons who could not afford to have their own legal representation (Byron, 2011).

    Access to justice at the Court is enhanced through the use of technology. Lawyers can make submissions and receive judgments electronically. The Court, to date, has been hearing interlocutory matters via audio video which are available on the Court’s website, at a minimal cost. Having regard to the effective use of technology, the Court is saving the Region large sums of money by providing quality access to justice (Gibson, 2012).
    The Modern Day Conversation/ Conclusion

    To date, many CARICOM Member States are debating whether the Court should be the final Court of Appeal in the Region to replace the Privy Council. The modern day debate stems from grounded criticism of political intrusion in the Court’s decision-making process and sustainable financing of its operations. The argument of political intrusion came about in respect of the selection of Judges for the Court. Originally, it was the Heads of Government to directly appoint Judges and in response, to mitigate the risk of political intrusion, the Regional Legal Services Commission (the Commission) was established in February 2001. The remit of the Commission is to appoint Judges, from the legal profession, through open applications received from throughout the Region. One possible downfall to this, however, is that the selection of the Judges for the Court is conducted by regional entities which are creatures of political influence. Therefore, is the Court truly insulated from political influence?

    Out of the 15 Member States, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, and Guyana utilize the Court as the final court of appeal. Considerations to accede are being discussed in other Member States such as Antigua and Barbuda, St. Lucia, and Jamaica. However, to fully accept the Court as a replacement of the old colonial relic remains a daunting process and discourse continues throughout the Region. Some arguments in favour of the CCJ as the final court of appeal in the region are: 1) it is cost effective access to justice, 2) judgements will take into consideration the Caribbean reality, 3) it is a regional court that will implement specific rules and laws, which will augur well for good governance in the Region, 4) judgements on cases will be delivered faster, and 5) it will bode well for the Region as one that is independent and confident to determine its own fate.

    This historic tale has proven the Court’s ability to replace the Privy Council. In this regard, there should not be any doubt lurking amongst our Member States about the Court’s rightful place as the final court of appeal. In closing, one should cogitate on this question asked by Dr. Kenny Anthony,

    “Why on earth should we compel the British to maintain the Privy Council, when the British have said to us time and time again to take your bundle and go?”

    Javier Spencer, B.Sc., M.Sc., is an International Business & Trade Professional with a B.Sc. in International Business and a M.Sc. in International Trade Policy. His professional interests include Regional Integration, International Business, Global Diplomacy and International Trade & Development. He may be contacted at javier.spencer at gmail.com.

  • Caribbean Region Most Affected by Loss in Correspondent Banking Relationships, according to World Bank Survey

    Caribbean Region Most Affected by Loss in Correspondent Banking Relationships, according to World Bank Survey

    Alicia Nicholls

    The withdrawal by international banks of correspondent banking relationships with Caribbean-based banks and money transfer businesses has once again been making headlines in the Caribbean. This week Antigua & Barbuda’s Prime Minister raised the issue at the Fourth Summit of the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC), terming it a “clear and present danger”. Last year mere weeks after Prime Minister Barrow of Belize raised the issue in his address at the Summit of the Americas in Panama, the Bank of America severed ties with Belize Bank, the largest bank in Belize.

    Correspondent banking relationships are Caribbean countries’ umbilical cord to the international financial system. They allow for the conduct of international trade and investment by facilitating crossborder payments, as well as the receipt and sending of remittances through international wire transfers. At the microlevel these relationships help local exporters to receive payments for their goods and services, local businesses to pay for imports, and poor families to receive remittances for their day to day survival. As I mentioned in an earlier article, the loss of correspondent banking relationships could spell disaster for the small, open economies of the region which are highly dependent on trade and investment flows, with implications for poverty reduction and eradication.

    World Bank Survey

    The Caribbean’s fears are not unfounded. According to the findings of a survey published by the World Bank in its report “Withdrawal from Correspondent Baking: Where, Why, and What to do About it” in November last year, the World Bank found that “small jurisdictions with significant offshore banking activities are particularly affected by the decline of CBRs”. More ominously, according to the Report, the Caribbean Region seems to be the most affected by a decline in correspondent banking relationships.

    It also noted that United States banks have been most frequently identified as withdrawing their correspondent banking services. According to the Report, the services which respondents mentioned as being the most affected by the loss of correspondent banking are “cheque clearing and settlement, cash management services, international wire transfers”, while banking authorities and local/regional banks identified trade finance.

    While the report noted that the majority of respondent banks have been able to find alternative banking relationships, in some cases the time and cost of finding new relationships are significant and not always on comparable terms and conditions as with the previous correspondent bank.

    The survey highlighted several reasons identified by international banks for withdrawing their correspondent banking services and noted that for large international banks, the main reasons were AML/CFT (anti-money laundering and counter-terrorism financing) and CDD/KYC (customer due diligence and know your customer) related concerns.

    In concluding, the Report provided a number of recommendations for both respondent banks and correspondent banks. One of the recommendations was for correspondent banks to consider the respondent bank’s business when making their decision to end a relationship, including by outlining the reasons for withdrawal, considering giving longer notice periods and considering the use of restrictions as opposed to outright termination.

    Caribbean seen as “Risky business”

    For the Caribbean, the loss of correspondent banking relationships, mainly as a result of banks’ de-risking practices, is intertwined with the fight against the arbitrary blacklists the region’s offshore financial jurisdictions are constantly called on to defend themselves against. Last year, both the EU and the District of Columbia (US) published blacklists which included Caribbean countries, causing regional governments to spend consider time advocating for their removal. Either way, the net result of these arbitrary actions would appear to do little to mitigate international banks’ perception of the Caribbean as literally a “risky” place to do business. The Financial Action Task Force (FATF) has reiterated the risk-based approach to AMT/CTF on a case-by-case basis as opposed to the wholesale de-risking which many banks are doing.

    The way forward

    The World Bank’s report is welcomed as it has provided some empirical evidence to support the concerns of Caribbean countries and in so doing helps to place a global spotlight on this issue. The Financial Stability Board (FSB) Report to the G-20 on actions taken to assess and address the decline in correspondent banking referenced the World Bank Report. The FSB has partnered with several organisations, including the World Bank, IMF among others, to address this issue through a four-point action plan which it has articulated in its report to the G-20.

    The E15 Initiative Report entitled “Strengthening the Global Trade and Investment System in the 21st Century” which was launched at World Economic Forum’s Annual Meeting at Davos this year noted that while data was scarce it would appear that developing countries are most affected by limited correspondent banking relationships and has offered some very timely proposals.

    Given the potential threat this issue poses to the region’s economies, it is incumbent on Caribbean banks to continue to observe the highest regulatory standards, including on AML/CTF and CDD/KYC. The Caribbean Association of Banks (CAB) has commendably been at the forefront of advocacy in regards to the issue of correspondent banking and their continued advocacy will be important.

    Former Prime Minister of Barbados and economist, Owen Arthur, at a Roundtable discussion on Correspondent Banking held in Kingston, Jamaica earlier this month has called on regional leaders to adopt coordinated regional measures to address the issue. Caribbean leaders must continue to raise the issue at the diplomatic and multilateral levels at every opportunity, and join forces with other similarly affected countries in advocating for an immediate global solution to the problem, including action on some of the proposals highlighted in the World Bank’s and E15 Initiative’s reports.

    Alicia Nicholls, B.Sc., M.Sc., LL.B. is a trade and development consultant with a keen interest in sustainable development, international law and trade. The Author is not affiliated with the World Bank, the Caribbean Association of Banks or any bank. You can read more of her commentaries and follow her on Twitter @LicyLaw.

  • Jamaica is new G-77 Geneva Chair

    Jamaica is the new chair of the Group of 77 Geneva chapter in 2016, taking over chairmanship from the Philippines.

    The G-77 is the largest intergovernmental organisation of developing countries within the United Nations system. It was established by 77 developing countries pursuant to the Joint Declaration of the 77 Developing Countries made at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development on June 15, 1964. Its membership has since expanded to 134 developing countries, including China.

    The grouping has five chapters: Geneva, Nairobi, Paris, Rome and Vienna.

    Further information may be accessed here.

  • St Lucia’s Citizenship by Investment programme officially opens for business

    Alicia Nicholls

    As of January 1st of this year, St. Lucia’s Citizenship by Investment programme is officially open and taking applications by interested investors. Late last year, Prime Minister, The Hon. Dr. Kenny Anthony formally launched the programme at the Global Citizen Forum held in Monaco. St. Lucia joins St. Kitts & Nevis, Grenada, Antigua & Barbuda and Dominica to become the fifth Caribbean State to offer a citizenship by investment programme.

    A citizenship by investment programme (CbI) offers qualifying investors (as well as their spouse and dependents once they meet certain criteria) citizenship in exchange for an investment in a qualifying activity, for instance, investment in real estate, a special fund or government bonds. In a world of dwindling access to financial resources, a growing number of States internationally are currently offering some form of citizenship by investment programme as a way to raise much needed finance, including for development objectives.

    This phenomenon is not limited to developing countries. Several metropolitan countries such as the US and its EB-5 Immigrant Investor Programme, offer some form of citizenship by investment scheme. Other States offer residency by investment programmes, which grant the qualifying investor certain residency benefits. A Caribbean example is Barbados’ Special Entry and Reside Permit (SERP), while Spain’s Golden Visa is an international example.

    The market for second passports is growing and is an attractive option for high net worth individuals (HNWIs), particularly business persons who come from countries  whose passports are subject to visa restrictions, making it difficult to travel to, and conduct business in major markets unimpeded. For HNWIs from those few countries like the US where personal income tax is levied based on nationality as opposed to residency,  renouncing one’s citizenship and obtaining citizenship of another State through a CbI programme is also increasingly seen an attractive option.

    Some quick facts about St. Lucia’s programme

    Basic Eligibility Requirements

    • Age Limit: Under the Citizenship by Investment Act No. 14 of 2015, a person who is 18 years or over may apply for citizenship of St. Lucia.
    • Dependents: Qualifying dependents include a spouse and a child and/or parent of the applicant or of his/her spouse once the child or parent meets certain criteria provided for in the Act.
    • Net worth: The applicant must have financial resources of at least US 3,000,000

    In addition to these basic requirements, the applicant must fill out an application form, accompanied by the requisite information, documentation and fees and is subjected to due diligence checks.

    All of this will be explained by the Authorised Agent. Authorised agents are licensed by the St. Lucia Financial Services Regulatory Authority and are authorised to act on the applicant’s behalf  in relation to the application for citizenship by investment.

    Qualifying Investments: On approval of the application, the potential investor will be required to make the qualifying investment proposed in his or her application. Under Schedule 2 of the Citizenship by Investment Regulations Statutory Instrument No. 89 qualifying investments are:

    • Investment in the St. Lucia National Development Fund, with the level of minimum investment required depending on whether the applicant is applying alone, with a spouse and/or with dependents. For an applicant applying alone, the minimum threshold is US$ 200,000.
    • Investment in an approved real estate project. The minimum threshold is US$300,000.
    • Investment in an approved enterprise project. The minimum investment required depends on whether it is one or more than one applicant investing. For an applicant applying alone, the minimum investment is US$ 3,500,000 (plus no less than 3 permanent jobs).
    • Investment by purchasing Investment by purchase of non interest bearing Government bonds (5 years holding bond). For an applicant applying alone, the minimum threshold is US$ 500,000.

    Benefits of St. Lucia Citizenship

    • St. Lucia allows for dual citizenship which means the investor is not forced to renounce his or her citizenship of another State.
    • The Citizenship by Investment Board is only allowed to grant a maximum of 500 applications annually which adds an element of exclusivity.
    • A St. Lucia passport allows for visa-free travel to over 90 countries, including the Schengen Area (26 European countries), as well as visa-free travel within the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the  other rights of which CARICOM nationals benefit under the Revised Treaty of Chaguaramas.

    For further information on St. Lucia’s Citizenship by Investment programme, please contact the St. Lucia Citizenship by Investment Unit.

    For a general overview of CbI programmes across the Caribbean, please feel free to read my earlier article: Economic Citizenship by Investment Programmes in the Eastern Caribbean: A Brief Look.

    DISCLAIMER: Please note that the information presented in this Article is for general information only and is not intended to be, nor should it be construed as, investment or legal advice. The Author is in no way affiliated with the St. Lucia Citizenship by Investment programme or any of the relevant authorities. The information is taken from sources deemed to be accurate at the time of publication and the Author of this article accepts no liability or responsibility for any errors which may be contained herein or any actions suffered as a result of reliance on the information presented.

    Alicia Nicholls, B.Sc., M.Sc., LL.B. is a trade and development consultant with a keen interest in sustainable development, international law and trade. You can also read more of her commentaries and follow her on Twitter @LicyLaw.